Kamis, 08 Januari 2009

THEORY IN HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

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Because all the pioneers of humanistic psychology were very individual people, there is no one single accepted theory which we can lay out and say - this is it. But there are some very consistent themes running through all the material put forward by these people.

The first is that, deep down underneath it all where it really counts, you are OK. This goes against many other and much older theories which say that people are fundamentally bad, selfish, narrow and nasty. By saying that people are fundamentally OK, we do not at all mean that people are not sometimes destructive, or that there is no evil in the world. What we mean is that if someone will agree to work with us on his or her destructive actions or evil wishes, in an atmosphere of trust and acceptance, that person will discover that the evil and destructiveness are just as phony and just as forgettable as the false niceness of other people, which apparently causes no problems.

In other words, we believe that personal nastiness and personal niceness are most often, in both cases, masks and illusions, put on for reasons which seemed good at the time, but which have now become stuck and rigid, and out of our control. In that sense, if you want to use labels, we are all neurotic. By working on ourselves to unstick the rigidities and loosen the mask, we can eventually learn how to live without needing masks at all - though it may be still be useful to put one on occasionally, as we might have a dress suit or an evening gown.

So when we talk about self-actualization, about getting in touch with what is the deepest truth within us, and allowing that to come out, we are not saying something fearful or dangerous. People often say - "How do I know I won't hate my deepest self when I come across it?" But this is an unrealistic fear, and we may sometimes suspect that it is really designed to enable the person to avoid the necessary effort.

The second thread which runs all through humanistic psychology is an emphasis on the whole person. If we say that human beings exist on at least five levels - body, feelings, intellect, transpersonal self and spirit - then we have to do justice to all five of those levels in all our efforts at realising human potential. If I want to be that self which I truly am, then I have to be it on all five of those levels - I must not leave any of them out. Any theory, any therapy, which leaves out one or more of these must be inadequate to deal with the full human being who has to be met and responded to.

Now today there is much more interest in the body - diet, exercise and so on - but much of that interest seems to us very external. It is as if we were supposed to be somewhere outside our bodies, disciplining them and making them do things, sometimes under protest. But the humanistic approach is to say that I am my body. If you touch my hand, you are touching me. So I am just as responsible for my body as I am for my thoughts, feelings, mental pictures or whatever - it is me doing it. This total reaponsibility for our own bodies, feelings, ideas and intuitions is very characteristic of humanistic psychology, and theoreticians like Mahrer and Schutz have made it clear exactly how this works.

This means that we are interested in integration. By integration we mean that the splits in the person can be healed, and that the holes in the personality can be filled. The various parts of the person can get to know each other better, accept each other more, and change in that process. This is not a process of subordinating all the various tendencies in the person to one overall control, like some kind of totalitarian ego - it is more like a harmony of contrasts.

The third thread we can follow all through the humanistic approach is the emphasis on change and development. Human beings are seen not as static victims or villains, but as people in a process of growth, which is natural and needful. All through our infancy, childhood and adolescence we are going through very substantial changes, involving our most basic attitudes and how we see ourselves. Maslow said that we grow through six main levels of development, and his rather speculative theory has now been confirmed through the research of people like Kohlberg, Alderfer and Jane Loevinger in many different countries of the world.

This process can continue, if we let it, in adulthood, too. We have all seen people we recognise as being further ahead than us, more complete, more evolved, more themselves. What humanistic psychology says is that we could all continue to grow if we did not limit ourselves and sell ourselves short. All the methods described in the next pages are designed to enable us to take off our self-imposed limitations, and continue to grow into our full potential as human beings.

One more idea which is important in humanistic psychology is abundance motivation. Most other psychology says that our actions are basically motivated by deficiency - that is, a lack of something. We may lack food and look for it, or lack safety and look for it, or lack company and look for it. This is to treat human beings as if they were basically something like a thermostat, only acting when comething moves them outside their proper limits. But human beings also have an achievement motivation, and a need for varied experience, and an enormous curiosity, which takes them out of this deficiency- oriented realm into an abundance-oriented world of experience. So when we seek to realise our potential, we are not repairing some deficiency, we are entering a world where being can sometimes be more important than having or doing.

Most of us normally think that if we have enough worldly goods, then we can do what we want to do, and then we can be happy. The sequence is HAVE - DO - BE. But what we in humanistic psychology say is that it is exactly the other way round. If we can be who we really are, we will find ourselves doing things which genuinely satisfy us and give us enjoyment, and then we shall have all we really want. The sequence for us is BE - DO - HAVE.

This begins to sound almost religious, and it is one of the characteristics of humanistic psychology, which distinguishes it very sharply from secular humanism, that it has a place for the spiritual.

Maslow always laid great stress on the importance of peak experiences and the experience of transcendence. A peak experience is one of those times, felt by many millions of people, when all the pretence and all the fear drops away, and we seem to be in touch with the whole universe. It is a timeless moment of intense feeling, which comes to some people when they see a sunrise, or a mountain, to some when they hear great music, to some when they look at a child, to some when they are having sex, and to some in a religious ceremony. It is technically known as casual extraverted mysticism, and it is within the reach of all of us.

In humanistic psychology we are very interested in studying this kind of phenomenon, and seeing how in some cases it can change a person's life. In fact, some of us got so interested in the whole area of the transpersonal - the more spiritual aspects of psychology - that a separate Journal of Transpersonal Psychology was set up and is now flourishing.

One interesting issue which arises here is the exact relationship between ordinary life, the process of development which we have been talking about, and the transpersonal. A look at Figure 1 may give some idea of the situation. [Figure 1 coming soon]

It can be seen that the first column deals with ordinary everyday life, and with the forms of therapy which simply try to restore people to that when they get sick or unhappy.

The second column is the heartland of humanistic psychology, and deals with a number of issues which are crucial to this practice. Most of the activities described in this booklet have to do with the second column, though many have some interest in the first and third columns as well.

The third column is the heartland of the transpersonal in some of its practical aspects - see the further sections on this.

The fourth column does not have much to do with counselling or psychotherapy, but is put in just to show that the transpersonal goes further, and includes the realm of spirit.

So when we say that humanistic psychology is concerned with the whole person, we really do mean it in a very particular way. We have developed a number of direct and effective ways of working, most particularly in the ways suggested by the second column. We assume that people are whole, and we treat them as if they are whole, and we encourage them to act as if they are whole. And in the pages which follow, we shall see exactly how this works out in practice.




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An Analysis of Carl Rogers' Theory of Personality

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Since the study of personality began, personality theories have offered a wide variety of explanations for behavior and what constitutes the person. This essay offers a closer look at the humanistic personality theory of Carl Rogers. Rogers' theory of personality evolved out of his work as a clinical psychologist and developed as an offshoot of his theory of client-centered (later called person-centered) therapy (Rogers, 1959). He was first and foremost a therapist, with an abiding respect for the dignity of persons and an interest in persons as subjects rather than objects. Rogers approach to the study of persons is phenomenological and idiographic. His view of human behavior is that it is "exquisitely rational" (Rogers, 1961, p.194). Furthermore, in his opinion: "the core of man's nature is essentially positive" (1961, p.73), and he is a "trustworthy organism" (1977, p.7). These beliefs are reflected in his theory of personality.

To examine this theory more closely, a summary of the key features follows, with subsequent exploration of Rogers' view of self, his view of the human condition and his rationale for improvement of this condition. A brief overall assessment will conclude the discussion. While Rogers' humanistic conception of personality has both strengths and weaknesses, it is a valuable contribution to the study of persons, recognizing agency, free will and the importance of the self.

Actualizing Tendency

Rogers (1959) maintains that the human "organism" has an underlying "actualizing tendency", which aims to develop all capacities in ways that maintain or enhance the organism and move it toward autonomy. This tendency is directional, constructive and present in all living things. The actualizing tendency can be suppressed but can never be destroyed without the destruction of the organism (Rogers, 1977). The concept of the actualizing tendency is the only motive force in the theory. It encompasses all motivations; tension, need, or drive reductions; and creative as well as pleasure-seeking tendencies (Rogers, 1959). Only the organism as a whole has this tendency, parts of it (such as the self) do not. Maddi (1996) describes it as a "biological pressure to fulfill the genetic blueprint" (p106.) Each person thus has a fundamental mandate to fulfill their potential.

Self

The human organism's "phenomenal field" includes all experiences available at a given moment, both conscious and unconscious (Rogers, 1959). As development occurs, a portion of this field becomes differentiated and this becomes the person's "self" (Hall & Lindzey, 1985; Rogers, 1959). The "self" is a central construct in this theory. It develops through interactions with others and involves awareness of being and functioning. The self-concept is "the organized set of characteristics that the individual perceives as peculiar to himself/herself" (Ryckman, 1993, p.106). It is based largely on the social evaluations he/she has experienced.

Self-Actualizing Tendency

A distinctly psychological form of the actualizing tendency related to this "self" is the "self-actualizing tendency". It involves the actualization of that portion of experience symbolized in the self (Rogers, 1959). It can be seen as a push to experience oneself in a way that is consistent with one's conscious view of what one is (Maddi, 1996). Connected to the development of the self-concept and self-actualization are secondary needs (assumed to likely be learned in childhood): the "need for positive regard from others" and "the need for positive self-regard", an internalized version of the previous. These lead to the favoring of behavior that is consistent with the person's self-concept (Maddi, 1996).

Organismic Valuing and Conditions of Worth

When significant others in the person's world (usually parents) provide positive regard that is conditional, rather than unconditional, the person introjects the desired values, making them his/her own, and acquires "conditions of worth" (Rogers, 1959). The self-concept then becomes based on these standards of value rather than on organismic evaluation. These conditions of worth disturb the "organismic valuing process", which is a fluid, ongoing process whereby experiences are accurately symbolized and valued according to optimal enhancement of the organism and self (Rogers, 1959). The need for positive self-regard leads to a selective perception of experience in terms of the conditions of worth that now exist. Those experiences in accordance with these conditions are perceived and symbolized accurately in awareness, while those that are not are distorted or denied into awareness. This leads to an "incongruence" between the self as perceived and the actual experience of the organism, resulting in possible confusion, tension, and maladaptive behavior (Rogers, 1959). Such estrangement is the common human condition. Experiences can be perceived as threatening without conscious awareness via "subception", a form of discrimination without awareness that can result in anxiety.

Fully Functioning Person and the Self

Theoretically, an individual may develop optimally and avoid the previously described outcomes if they experience only "unconditional positive regard" and no conditions of worth develop. The needs for positive regard from others and positive self-regard would match organismic evaluation and there would be congruence between self and experience, with full psychological adjustment as a result (Rogers, 1959). This ideal human condition is embodied in the "fully functioning person" who is open to experience able to live existentially, is trusting in his/her own organism, expresses feelings freely, acts independently, is creative and lives a richer life; "the good life" (Rogers, 1961). It should be noted that; "The good life is a process not a state of being. It is a direction, not a destination (Rogers, 1961, p.186)". For the vast majority of persons who do not have an optimal childhood there is hope for change and development toward psychological maturity via therapy, in which the aim is to dissolve the conditions of worth, achieve a self congruent with experience and restore the organismic valuing process (Rogers, 1959).

In Rogers' view (1959, 1961, 1977) personality change is certainly possible and is further a necessary part of growth. However, he notes that self-acceptance is a prerequisite (1961). Rogers originally failed to recognize the importance of "self". When he began his work he had the "settled notion that the "self" was a vague, ambiguous, scientifically meaningless term which had gone out of the psychologist's vocabulary with the departure of the introspectionists" (1959, p.200). However, through his work with clients he came to appreciate the importance of self. The "self" is described as:

the organized, consistent, conceptual gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the "I" or "me" and the perceptions of the relationships of the "I" or "me" to others and to various aspects of life, together with the values attached to these perceptions. (Rogers, 1959, p.200)

This gestalt is a fluid and changing process, available to awareness. By using the term "gestalt", Rogers points to the possibility of change describing it as "a configuration in which the alteration of one minor aspect could possibly alter the whole picture" (p.201).

Rogers' conception of self is rather broad. He does describe a variation of self: the "ideal self" which denotes the self-concept the individual would most like to possess (Rogers, 1959), but other explicit variations are not offered. Similarly, specific concepts related to identity and identity development are missing, although the self image is certainly revisable and undergoes change over the lifespan. Exactly when the differentiation of phenomenal field into self occurs is also not specified. Rogers concept of self-actualization is specifically related to the self and is thus different from Goldstein's use of the term (which matches the actualizing tendency) and also different from Maslow's which appears to incorporate both tendencies in one (Maddi, 1996).

The actualizing tendency is fundamental to this theory. Rogers considers it "the most profound truth about man" (1965, p.21). He finds strong biological support for this tendency in many varied organisms. Rogers' conception of an active forward thrust is a huge departure from the beliefs of Freud and others who posit an aim for tension reduction, equilibrium, or homeostasis (Krebs & Blackman, 1988; Maddi, 1996). Rogers (1977) notes that sensory deprivation studies support this concept as the absence of external stimuli leads to a flood of internal stimuli, not equilibrium.

While the idea of an actualizing tendency makes sense, Rogers never specifies what some of the inherent capacities that maintain and enhance life might be. Perhaps it is because doing so might violate Rogers' "intuitive sense of human freedom" (Maddi, 1996, p.104). Maddi further suggests that the belief in inherent potentialities may lie in this theory's position as an offshoot of psychotherapy where it is useful for both client and therapist to have a belief in unlimited possibilities. However, applying this idea to all human beings in a theory of personality sets up the logical requirement of precision regarding what the potentialities might be (Maddi, 1996).

The inherent potentialities of the actualizing tendency can suffer distorted expression when maladjustment occurs, resulting in behavior destructive to oneself and others. The actualization and self-actualization tendencies can be at cross purposes with each other when alienation from the true self occurs, so there is organismic movement in one direction and conscious struggle in another. Rogers (1977) revised his previous thinking concerning this incongruence, stating that while he earlier saw the rift between self and experience as natural, while unfortunate, he now believes society, (particularly Western culture), culturally conditions, rewards and reinforces behaviors that are "perversions of the unitary actualizing tendency (p.248)." We do not come into the world estranged from ourselves, socialization is behind this alienation. Rogers (1961) finds the human infant to actually be a model of congruence. He/she is seen as completely genuine and integrated, unified in experience, awareness and communication. Distorted perceptions from conditions of worth cause our departure from this integration.

There is some empirical support for the hypothesis that congruence between self and experience leads to better personality adjustment and less defensiveness (Chodorkoff, 1954; cited in Rogers, 1959). Some research has also tended to support the idea of changes in self-concept occurring as a result of therapy (Butler & Haigh, 1954; cited in Rogers, 1954). However, Maddi (1996) raises and interesting point regarding such studies. While it has been found that self-descriptions move toward ideals after counseling and one would assume the closer a person is to full functioning the smaller the discrepancy would be, statements of ideals may be operational representations of conditions of worth, which are socially imposed. Conditions of worth are to be dissolved rather than moved toward for full functioning in this theory!

While Rogers sees the common human condition as one of incongruence between self and experience, this does not minimize his ultimate belief in the autonomy of human beings. Rogers (1977, p15) sees the human being as: "capable of evaluating the outer and inner situation, understanding herself in its context, making constructive choices as to the next steps in life, and acting on those choices". This illustrates a belief in agency and free will. While humans behave rationally, Rogers (1961, p.195) maintains that: "The tragedy for most of us is that our defenses keep us from being aware of this rationality so that we are consciously moving in one direction, while organismically we are moving in another." Unlike Freud, Rogers did not see conflict as inevitable and humans as basically destructive. It is only when "man is less than fully man", not functioning freely, that he is to be feared (1961, p.105). The human capacity for awareness and the ability to symbolize gives us enormous power, but this awareness is a double-edged phenomenon : undistorted awareness can lead to full functioning and a rich life, while distortions in awareness lead to maladjustment and a multitude of destructive behaviors (Rogers, 1965).

The "maladjusted person" is the polar opposite of the fully functioning individual (who was introduced early in this essay). The maladjusted individual is defensive, maintains rather than enhances his/her life, lives according to a preconceived plan, feels manipulated rather than free, and is common and conforming rather than creative (Maddi, 1996). The fully functioning person, in contrast, is completely defense-free, open to experience, creative and able to live "the good life". Empirical support for the fully functioning person is somewhat mixed. The openness to experience characteristic has been supported (Coan, 1972; cited in Maddi, 1996). However, some studies have found that openness to experience and organismic trusting did not intercorrelate, contrary to expectations (Pearson, 1969, 1974; cited in Maddi, 1996). Ryckmann (1993) notes that some studies have found non-defensive people are more accepting of others and Maddi (1996) cites numerous studies that indicate self-accepting people also appear to be more accepting of others.

It is somewhat puzzling given his humanistic emphasis on individuality, that Rogers describes only two extremes of people. Maddi (1996) suggests these extreme characterizations of only two types may be due to this personality theory being secondary to a theory of therapy. It is appropriate for a theory of psychotherapy to concern itself with the two extremes of fullest functioning and maladjustment. However, when theorizing about all people, two types are insufficient.

Carl Rogers was most interested in improving the human condition and applying his ideas. His person-centered therapy may well be his most influential contribution to psychology. Rogers' pervasive interest in therapy is what clearly differentiates him from Maslow, despite some similarities in their ideas. The person-centered approach has had impact on domains outside of therapy such as family life, education, leadership, conflict resolution, politics and community health (Krebs & Blackman, 1988). In my opinion, Rogers greatest contribution may lie in his encouraging a humane and ethical treatment of persons, approaching psychology as a human science rather than a natural science.

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CERPEN ALUN-ALUN SERIBU PATUNG KARYA DANARTO

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Cerpen Alun-Alun Seribu Patung ini memiliki karakteristik yang dominan dari segi bentuk, khususnya gaya bahasa. Gaya bahasa dalam cerpen ini diteliti untuk menentukan “kekuatan efek atau citraan”, situasi yang dimunculkan, dan makna peristiwa dan sekuen yang dilukiskan dalam gaya bahasa. Tulisan ini menyimpulkan bahwa gaya bahasa yang muncul seperti, perumpaman, perbandingan, personifikasi, metafor, litotes, repetisi, polisemi, oksimoron, dan hiperbol tersebut mendukung penciptaan situasi, suasana, dan peristiwa yang terjadi untuk mempekuaat citraan terhadap teks ketika dibaca. Sarana retoris itu mampu menciptakan efek dan kesan yang mendukung dan membungkus makna, yakni pertentangan hakikat makna hidup dalam dunia pemikiran, filsafat, epistemis, dan mistis. Melalui gaya bahasa, cerpen ini mengajak pembaca untuk mengalegorikan dunia sufistik, mistis, dan hakiki yang esensial dengan alegori penyeretan Drupadi.

1. Pengantar

Penelitian gaya bahasa yang terdapat dalam kaya sastra sampai saat ini masih jarang dilakukan atau masih sedikit (Pradopo, 2000:263). Studi ini umumnya masuk kedalam dua bidang kajian yakni linguistik dan sastra. Tulisan ini akan menelaah salah satu cerpen dalam sastra Indonesia karya Danarto yang berjudul Alun-Alun Seribu Patung. Cerpen ini dimuat dalam kumpulan cerpen Danarto yang berjudul Setangkai Melati Di Sayap Jibril dan diterbitkan oleh Bentang pada tahun 2001. Cerpen ini berisi cerita penyeretan Drupadi oleh Kurawa yang terjadi di alun-alun dan ditonton oleh ksatria dan ribuan rakyat karena Pandawa kalah judi di Istana Astina. Meskipun cerita penyeretan Drupadi, istri Pandawa, tersebut tidak sesuai dengan versi pada umumnya, hal ini tidak dipemasalahkan. Dalam hal ini, teks dianggap memiliki nilai yang sama untuk diteliti dari prespektif manapun (Barthes, 1981: 37-38). Dengan demikian, teks mempunyai perlakuan yang sama untuk diinterpretasikan. Setelah dilakukan pembacaan terhadap cerpen ini, cerpen ini tampaknya menarik untuk diteliti dari sudut stilistika. Hal ini disebabkan gaya yang ada dalam cerpen ini sekilas menujukkan kekhasan gaya bahasa yakni munculnya dominasi gaya perumpaman, personifikasi, dan metafor. Selain itu, gaya tersebut dijadikan sarana pembungkus makna sehingga layak dilakukan pembongkaran guna mengetahui makna, efek, dan citraan yang ditimbulkan dari penggunaan gaya tersebut.

2. Ruang Lingkup Stilistika

Kridalaksana (1982:157), dalam Kamus Linguistik, memberikan batasan stilistika. Menurutnya, stilistika adalah (1) ilmu yang menyelidiki bahasa yang dipergunakan dalam karya sastra; ilmu interdispiliner antara linguistik dan kesusastraan (2) penerapan lingustik pada penelitian gaya bahasa. Tuner (1977:7) juga memberikan pengertian tentang stilistika. Menurutnya, stilistika adalah bagian dari linguistik yang memusatkan perhatiannya pada variasi penggunaan bahasa, terutama dalam kesusastraan. Fowier (1987:237) mengatakan bahwa stilistika merupakan cabang dari studi sastra. Menurutnya, para ahli mengatakan bahwa stilistik meneliti sastra pada aspek bahasanya, yakni imaji, stuktur suara, sintaksis, dan lain-lain. Umar Junus (1989:xvii) mengatakan bahwa hakikat stilistika adalah pemakaian dan penggunaannya dalam karya sastra, tetapi kemunculannya sudah ada dalam linguistik. Menurutnya, stilistika dipakai sebagai gabungan, yakni ilmu sastra dan ilmu linguistik. Lebih lanjut, Umar Junus (1989:xviii) mengusulkan bahwa stilistika itu menjadi ilmu yang berdiri sendiri, terlepas dari linguistik ataupun sastra.Stilistika adalah ilmu tentang gaya bahasa. Gaya bahasa sendiri adalah (1) pemanfaatan kekayaan bahasa oleh seseorang dalam bertutur dan menulis, (2) pemakaian ragam tertentu untuk memperoleh efek tertentu, (3) keseluruhan ciri bahasa sekelompok penulis sastra (Kridalaksana, 1982:49-50). Enkvist (dalam Junus, 1989:4) mengatakan bahwa gaya bahasa ada enam pengertian khasnya, yakni (1) bungkus yang membungkus inti pemikiran yang telah ada sebelumnya, (2) pilihan antara berbagai pernyataan yang mungkin, (3) sekumpulan ciri pribadi, (4) penyimpangan norma atau kaidah, (5) sekumpulan ciri kolektif, dan (6) hubungan antarsatuan bahasa yang dinyatakan dalam teks yang lebih luas dari pada kalimat.Untuk mengkaji karya sastra dari sudut stilistika, ada dua kemungkinan dalam mendekatinya. Pertama, studi stilistika dilakukan dengan cara menganalisis sistem linguistik karya sastra dan dilanjutkan dengan menginterpretasi ciri-cirinya, dilihat dari tujuan estetis karya sastra sebagai makna yang penuh. Kedua, penelitian stilistika ini dilakukan dengan mengamati variasi dan distorsi terhadap pemakian bahasa yang normal dan menemukan tujuan estetisnya (Wellek dan Warren, 1990:226). Dari kedua pendekatan tersebut terlihat perbedaan letak pijakannya. Namun, kedua pendekatan tersebut pada hakikatnya tidaklah saling bertentangan.

3. Analisis Cerpen Alun-Alun Seribu Patung

Selain, karya Danarto terkenal di dunia kesenian international (Kleden, 2004:388), karya-karya Danarto umumnya menujukkan gaya yang khas (Suwondo, 2003:153). Danarto dalam karya-karya berusaha memanfaatkan citraan dalam membungkus dan menciptakan makna. Pilihan kata atau diksi, kelompok kata, kalimat-kalimat, dan wacana saling mendukung untuk mengungkapkan tema-temanya. Penggunaan bahasa dalam karya Danarto membawa dampak pada kekuatan bahasa dan makna dalam karyanya. Tema-tema seperti dunia mistis dan sufistik menjadi “segar dan berirama” dengan pemanfaatan gaya seperti metafor, pertentangan, dan perumpaman. Salah satu karya tersebut adalah cerpen Alun-Alun Seribu Patung. Pembacaan terhadap cerpen Alun-Alun Seribu Patung menimbulkan efek kengerian dan keganasan. Efek-efek tersebut diketahui dari penggunan kata dan bunyi-bunyi yang terangkai dalam kata demi kata, kalimat demi kalimat. Metafor, hiperbol, dan personifikasi yang digunakan mampu menciptakan efek yang kuat terhadap medan semantik dari kata-kata tersebut. Sebagai contoh adalah judulnya. Judul ini terdiri dari “alun-alun”, “seribu”, dan “patung”. Dari ketiga kelompok tersebut telah menimbulkan kesan semantis. Jika judul tersebut diartikan, judul itu mengandung arti suatu tempat publik di tengah kota yang mempunyai seribu patung. Yang muncul adalah pertanyaan mengapa harus alun-alun yang mempunyai seribu patung. Kata “seribu” yang bermakna banyak menimbulkan efek tertentu, misal kekaguman, penasaran, dan kemegahan terhadap sesuatu.Cerpen ini dimulai dengan situasi yang ngeri dan ganas. Citraan yang muncul pertama kali dalam cerpen ini adalah keterbalikan nasib dan keadaan. Dengan memanfaatkan gaya bahasa hiperbol, perumpamaan, metafor, dan personifikasi, cerpen ini dalam situasi awal mampu memberikan suatu suasana yang menakutkan, menegangkan, dan dinanti-nantikan oleh pembaca. Kecemasan pembaca dan keingintahuan terhadap apa yang terjadi sebelumnya dan selanjutnya mampu tercipta melalui penggunan gaya bahasa metafor dan personifikasi. Gaya bahasa yang terdapat pada situasi awal cerpen ini adalah hiperbol, personifikasi, metafor, dan perumpaman. Gaya-gaya tersebut telah mampu menciptakan efek keingintahuan, suasana yang mencekam, dan suasana yang patut untuk diperhatikan, dicermati, dan diamati. “Drupadi diseret dan digiring ke alun-alun oleh para ksatria Kurawa. Bagai Peladuk yang ditekam singa, Drupadi terkulai. Cakar elang Dursasana mencengkeram selendang yang melilit pinggang Drupadi sehingga istri Puntadewa itu terhuyung-huyung bagai perahu nelayan diombang-ambingkan ombak. Busanya mencium cakrawala. Sedang air matanya berlelehan menyapu bedak pipinya yang telah jadi lumpur. Rambutnya yang legam mengibar-ngibarkan debu menyerupai sorak-sorai tangan-tangan yang dahulu pernah menyambutnya sebagai putri agung Kerajaan Pancala. Panas matahari mencorong persis di atas ubun-ubun yang mendadak dicipta Batara Wisnu yang menyobek malam menjadi siang. Angin berebut menerbangkan ujung kainnya yang penuh berita duka ke seluruh pelosok Kerajaan Astina. Segalanya mampus”. Dari kutipan tersebut diketahui adanya beberapa gaya bahasa. Kata-kata “bagai (bagai peladuk, bagai perahu) dan menyerupai” menujukkan gaya bahasa perumpamaan. Kata-kata “cakar elang” menunjukkan gaya bahasa metafor. Gaya bahasa personifikasi ditunjukkan dengan kata-kata seperti ”mencium (busanya mencium), menyapu (air matanya menyapu), menerbangkan (angin menerbangkan). Gaya-gaya tersebut telah menciptakan efek yang melebih-lebihkan suatu kejadian atau juga hiperbol dari suatu kejadian. Hal ini menujukkan bahwa peristiwa dan situasi pada tahap awal tersebut sangat penting untuk diketahui. Situasi penyeretan Drupadi tersebut adalah suatu peristiwa besar, penting, dan tidak disangka-sangka. Orang yang mengenal Drupadi tidak akan percaya mengapa hal itu terjadi. Dengan alasan inilah, gaya-gaya bahasa seperti yang disebutkan dimunculkan untuk mendukung medan sematis dari makna dan kehadiran situasi awal ini. Bagian berikutnya dari cerpen ini menujukkan suatu perbuatan yang mengerikan dan kekejaman yang melampaui batas. Suasana yang kejam dan mengerikan tersebut dilukiskan dengan menggunakan gaya perbandingan atau perumpaman. Perbuatan Dursasana dan para ksatria lainnya digambarkan sebagai perbuatan yang kasar, tidak bermoral, tidak beretika, kejam, dan memalukan bagi seoang ksatria dan bangsawan. Selain itu, perbuatan tersebut dicitrakan untuk menujukkan kekuatan, kekuasaan, dan keganasan dari para ksatria Kurawa. Dengan disaksikan oleh ribuan rakyat dan lelaki yang terkesima dengan perlakuan tersebut, suasana yang tercipta juga menujukkan kekaguman dan keheranan dari para penonton. Kemolekan tubuh Drupadi dan kekuatan para ksatria untuk menelanjangi dan melempar-lemparkan tubuh Drupadi seperti piala bergilir di tengah alun-alun tersebut diciptakan dengan suasana yang ngeri, haru pilu, dan menimbulkan emosi pembaca terhadap peristiwa tersebut. Tampaknya, suasana itu dilukiskan dengan membungkus maksud atau makna dari peristiwa tersebut dengan memanfaatkan gaya bahasa perumpaman dan hiperbol. Kedua gaya bahasa ini dimanfaatkan untuk mendukung suasana tersebut sehingga memperkuat kesan dan efek yang ada. Berikut ini adalah contoh kutipan yang menujukkan kedua gaya bahasa tersebut. Contoh pertama adalah gaya bahasa perumpaman sedangkan contoh kedua adalah gaya bahasa hiperbol. “Tubuh Drupadi dibetot ke sana, digelandang kemari, seperti layang-layang yang sedang dimainkan”. “…..alun-alun yang semakin ramai dikunjungi rakyat yang berbondong-bondong datang dari mana-mana. Ratusan. Ribuan. Para lelaki terkesima”. Usaha penelanjangan Drupadi terus dilakukan oleh Dursasana. Namun, setiap usaha yang dilakukan olehnya selalu gagal. Dursasana pun meminta bantuan dari para ksatria, tetapi mereka juga gagal. Bahkan, para lelaki yang hadir pun juga ikut menelanjangi Drupadi, tetapi mereka gagal. Kegagalan yang berulang-ulang tersebut semakin memperkuat balutan selendang atau kain pada tubuh Drupadi. Dengan segala kekuatan dan kesombongannya, usaha yang dilakukan oleh Dursasana dan para ksatria lainnya juga gagal. Kegagalan yang berulang dan kain Drupadi yang semakin rapat juga dibungkus dengan sarana retorika repetisi. Peristiwa kegagalan usaha yang dilakukan oleh para ksatria Kurawa yang berulangan-ulangan tersebut juga terlihat dalam gaya bahasa yang digunakan. Gaya bahasa repetisi yang digunakan bukan semata-mata menyesuaikan peristiwa kegagalan yang berulang-ulang. Gaya repetisi yang muncul dalam bagian ini lebih difokuskan pada usaha mempertajam maksud dan menimbulkan efek tertentu. Efek tesebut berupa efek ketidakmampuan dan kekalahan dari setiap perbuatan jahat dan tidak beretika yang dilakukan oleh pelaku. “Semakin wanita itu berusaha ditelanjangi, semakin kain pnutupnya itu bertambah mengatup rapat. Udara mengumbar wangi dari gelar-gelar rumputan. Sarana retorika repetisi yang digunakan terlihat pada pengulangan kata “semakin”. Sarana retoris ini juga diikuti oleh sarana retoris yang lain yakni hiperbol. Perpaduan antara dua sarana retoris tersebut dihadirkan untuk mendukung dan memperkuat situasi. Dengan terciptanya hal tersebut, kesan, dan efek yang termunculkan mampu memperkuat dan membungkus makna yang tercipta. Jika kehadiran sarana retoris tersebut diartikan, arti tersebut adalah usaha yang dilakukan atau sesuatu yang dilakukan selalu gagal jika sesuatu tersebut tidak benar atau salah. Kegagalan terus dialami jika usaha tersebut tidak sesuai dengan hukum, etika, dan melanggar nilai-nilai kebenaran. Hal ini dibuktikan dengan usaha penelanjangan Drupadi.Sarana retoris repetisi juga muncul kembali pada bagian berikutnya. Gaya ini rupanya muncul untuk memperkuat makna bahwa usaha atau sesuatu yang bertentangan dengan nilai-nilai kebenaran universal akan selalu gagal. Hal ini terlihat dari upaya mempermalukan dan menelanjangi Drupadi yang gagal. Peristiwa penelanjangan Drupadi merupakan simbol dari usaha untuk meruntuhkan dan mengalahkan nilai etika, moral, kebenaran, dan tata susila yang berlaku pada zamannya. Meskipun usaha itu dilakukan berbagai orang dan kelompok orang, usaha tersebut selalu gagal dan semakin memperkuat posisi kebenaran, moral, dan etika yang ingin dihancurkan. Hal ini tampak direspon dan diwujudkan melalui gaya bahasa repetisi. Berikut ini adalah kutipan hal yang menerangjelaskannya.

“Namun makin ditarik beramai-ramai persis adu tarik tambang, makin panjang dan panjang, tak habis juga kain yang melilit tubuhnya”. Gaya bahasa personifikasi juga dimanfaatkan dalam cerpen ini. Gaya bahasa tersebut masih memberikan gambaran tentang sosok Drupadi yang sedang ditelanjangi. Fisik dan keadaan Drupadi ketika berusaha dipermalukan oleh Drusasana, para ksatria, dan laki-laki cenderung menggunakan bahasa personifikasi. Hal ini dimaksudkan bahwa meskipun Drupadi ketika itu diam, tak bergerak, dan lemah, jiwa dan batin mengutuki perbuatan tersebut. Hal ini disimbolkan dengan selendang atau kain yang bergerak, udara yang berkeringat, dan diibaratkan dengan benteng yang melalap segala musuhnya. Selain itu, suasana yang tercipta juga didukung oleh gaya bahasa personifikasi, seperti udara yang berkeringat. Kalimat ini menunjukkan bahwa suasana yang tercipta sungguh memilukan, sesak, dan penuh ketakutan sehingga udara yang ada disekitarnya menjadi gerah dan berubah. Gaya bahasa personifikasi ini mampu mendukung terciptanya suasana yang berkesesuaian dengan peristiwa yang berlaku. Dengan demikian, penggunaan gaya bahasa personifikasi tidak hanya untuk menciptakan efek puitis yang indah, tetapi juga mendukung suasana yang tercipta. Berikut ini adalah contoh kutipan yang membuktikan hal tersebut. “Kain itu seolah terurai dan tubuh Drupadi memutar bagai gasing”. “Benteng yang menjulurkan lidah melahap musuh satu per satu. Udara berkeringat kental”. Kutipan tersebut juga menunjukkan sarana retoris perbandingan, yakni dengan kata “bagai”. Kalimat-kalimat yang terdapat dalam cerpen ini juga banyak yang menggunakan gaya bahasa perbandingan yang dirangkai dengan gaya bahasa yang lain ataupun sebaliknya. Perumpamaan-perumpamaan yang muncul dalam kalimat-kalimat di cerpen ini memberikan interpretasi bahwa untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang lebih agar maksudnya “lebih padat”. Cerpen ini sengaja menggunakan bahasa perbandingan. Hal ini dimaksudkan agar nada dan ritme yang ada dalam kalimat mendukung konteks. Atau dengan kata lain, diksi yang digunakan diusahakan juga mendukung konteks peristiwa, maksud peristiwa, dan suasana. Berikut ini adalah kutipan yang dapat menerangjelaskan hal tersebut. Kutipan berikut ini membuktikan bahwa Drupadi tidak berhasil ditelanjangi dianggap sebagai pahlawan. Usaha penelanjangan Drupadi sendiri dapat disimbolkan sebagai usaha menghancurkan nilai etika, kebenaran, dan norma masyarakat ketika itu. Keberhasilan Drupadi dalam mengemban tugas tersebut dianggap sebagai pahlawan sehingga gaya bahasa yang muncul juga mengisyaratkan hal tersebut. “Bagai seorang pahlawan, Drupadi dielu-elukan rakyat penontonya. Menyaksikan keadaan yang berbalik itu, Dursasana dan saudara-saudaranya hanya melongo”. Gaya bahasa metafor yang muncul dalam cerpen ini pada bagian berikutnya dimaksudkan untuk memberikan tekanan pada suasana yang tercipta. Suasana yang tercipta tersebut menujukkan suasana yang relatif statis, diam, dan penuh ketenangan. Dalam suasana ketenangan tersebut terdapat pertentangan yang hebat dalam batin para pelaku. Selain itu, dengan metafor yang mendukung suasana ini juga terdapat suatu ajakan untuk merenungi kembali tentang hakikat hidup, eksistensi hidup, fungsi hidup dalam kerangka fungsi dari keberadaan setiap mahluk. Hal ini ditunjukkan oleh Puntadewa dalam suasana permainan dadu. Meskipun suasana tersebut sedikit menegangkan, efek yang muncul justru suasana yang relatif tenang. Gaya bahasa metafor yang muncul mampu mendukung penciptaan efek yang tenang untuk perenungan dan pemikiran yang dalam bagi setiap ksatria yang hadir. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa pengunaan dan redefinisi terhadap eksistensi manusia diperlukan dan dibutuhkan kembali. Kehadiran untuk memimikirkan ulang hal tersebut haruslah dalam suasana yang tenang batin dan lahirnya. Dalam ketenangan batin dan lahir tersebut sebenarnya terdapat pertentangan batiniah, epistemis, ideologis, dan hakiki dari dalam para pelakunya. Peristiwa permaian judi atau dadu dengan segala taruhannya adalah simbol dari ini semua. Dalam peristiwa tersebut ada ketenangan, tetapi hakikatnya adalah pertaruhan. Kehadiran gaya metafor ini mampu menciptakan hal tersebut. Metafor sebagai sarana retorika teks mampu menempatkan kehadirannya dan tepat dalam penggunaannya. Berikut ini adalah kutipan yang menerangjelaskan hal tersebut. “Dunia ini cuma maya, apa salahnya menghibur diri sedikit dari kedahsyatan alam semesta, “guman Puntadewa sambil melempar dadu-dadu gading ke nampan perak, melakukan pembenaran diri-sendiri untuk menghibur tubuh yang fana itu”. Guna mendukung konteks kejadian dan suasana yang diinginkan oleh alur cerita, gaya bahasa metafor muncul disusul oleh gaya bahasa yang lain, misal gaya bahasa oksimoron. Bagian selanjutnya dalam cerpen ini di dominasi oleh gaya bahasa personifikasi. Meskipun gaya bahasa metafor muncul dan disusul dengan gaya bahasa oksimoron, personifikasi tetap lebih dominan. Hal ini menujukkan bahwa konteks memang peran penting dalam menyajikan cerita. Dalam keadaan malam yang tenang, hati Drupadi gelisah. Kegelisahan ini digambarkan dengan melukiskan dan menghidupkan benda mati agar suasana hening dan tenang tersebut terasa hidup dan berdialog dengan Drupadi. Meskipun hal ini dapat dikatakan bahwa terdapat antitesis dari suasana, tetapi gaya bahasa antitesis tidak ditemukan pada bagian ini. “Sementara itu di peraduannya, Drupadi tidak dapat tidur meski keadaan sekelilinginya tentram. Serangga malam menghembuskan napas hangat ke kamar tidurnya. Rembulan menghiburnya dengan mengirim perahu malam dan berlayarlah sejenak Drupadi menyibak langit biru jernih dengan kerdipan bintang-bintang yang merayunya untuk tak kembali kepada hidup yang tidak sepertinya itu. Setiap kali Drupadi menjenguk bumi, tak terasa rembulan menghadang pandanganya dengan segumpal awan tebal. Sang Dewi tidak menghiraukannya, meloncat dia turun tergesa-gesa. Mondar-mandir di kamar tidurnya, gelisah dia. Berbuncah perasaanya bagai kawah Gunung Garubah yang hutannya belum terjamah. Begitu resahnya sampai Dewi Drupadi berubah menjadi macam kumbang. Legam bagai pekat malam, binatang yang suka menyingai itu meloncat dari ranjang. Berlari dia keluar kamar. Bintang-bintang mengintip mencoba melunturkan malam”. Kutipan tersebut juga menunjukkan beberapa gaya bahasa. Gaya bahasa oksimoron ditunjukkan pada kalimat pertama. Kalimat pertama tersebut, selain menggunakan gaya bahasa metafor dengan kata “peraduannya”, dapat dikatakan juga gaya bahasa okisimoran dengan mempertentangkan keadaan yang ada, yakni ketenangan dan ketidaktentramaan malam dengan kekacauan hati Drupadi. Memanusiakan benda mati dan binatang terlihat juga dalam kutipan tersebut. Kata-kata seperti “menghempaskan, menghibur, merayu, mengintip, dan menghadang” adalah gaya bahasa personifikasi. Gaya metafor juga ditemukan dalam kutipan tersebut. Seperti munculnya penyebutan sang dewi bagi Drupadi. Gaya bahasa hiperbol juga terdapat dalam cerpen ini. Hiperbol muncul juga sesuai dengan konteks peristiwa, yakni melebih-lebihkan peristiwa yang terjadi. Hal ini kelihatan ketika para ksatria Kurawa dan para lelaki tidak berhasil menarik kain yang mrembalut tubuh Drupadi. Mereka dilukiskan seperti kehilangan harga diri dan disoraki rakyatnya. Mereka juga mengatakan bahwa rakyat adalah pengkhianat bagi mereka. Pada puncaknya, mereka dilukiskan seperti memakan duri dalam tenggorokan. Bahkan, meja dan kursi yang ada berubah menjadi api. Tiang-tiang pendapa digambarkan meleleh.Lukisan yang berlebihan tersebut hadir untuk memperkuat dan mengambil asosiasi dari peristiwa yang terjadi. Rasa malu dan kegagalan para ksatria Kurawa untuk mempermalukan Drupadi harus dibayar dengan “rasa sakit”. Hal ini diibaratkan dengan tenggorokan yang dipenuhi duri. Kesombongan, keangkuhan, dan kekuatan yang semula ganas yang dimiliki ksatria Kurawa, terutama Dursasana, harus hilang seperti tiang-tiang pendapa yang kuat meleleh. Tiang pendapa Astina Pura yang kuat adalah simbol dari kekuatan dan kekuasaan Kurawa. Akan tetapi, tiang-tiang tersebut akhirnya hancur dengan cara meleleh. Dengan demikian, melelehnya tiang pendapa dan meja kursi menjadi api tersebut adalah simbol dari peristiwa kerberhasilan Drupadi dan kegagalan pihak ksatria Kurawa. Berikut ini adalah kutipan yang menujukkan hal tersebut. “Para ksatria Kurawa lainnya kelimpungan merasa tenggorokannya dicocoki duri. Meja kursi berubah jadi api. Tiang-tiang pendapa meleleh”. Hiperbol dari kejadian kegagalan tersebut tidak hanya melukiskan pihak Kurawa, tetapi juga keadaan dalam alun-alun. Ribuan rakyat yang menyaksikan peristiwa tersebut juga dilukiskan secara hiperbol. Hal ini terlihat dari kemampuan Drupadi yang bangkit yang membentuk “gumpalan hitam menganga”. Hal itu diinterpretasikan sebagai suasana yang mendukung “kebangkitan” Drupadi akibat dari peristiwa tersebut. Berikut adalah kutipannya.“Sorak-sorai rakyat Kerajaan Astina sambil mengacung-acungkan tangannya mengelu-elukan Drupadi yang tegak berdiri, mampu menghimpun awan-gemawan di angkasa untuk membentuk gumpalan hitam yang menganga”. Polisemi juga muncul dalam cerpen ini. Polisemi ini terjadi untuk melukiskan kehancuran dan kehilangan martabat dan kerhomatan para ksatria Kurawa. Kata yang digunakan untuk mengantikan kehilangan dan kehancuran martabat dan kehormatan ksatria Kurawa adalah kata “jatuh”. Polisemi tersebut diikuti dengan situasi kemarahan Dursasana. Lukisan kemarahan dari Dursasana sangat hiperbol. Kiasan-kiasan yang digunakan adalah kata-kata seperti “ribuan nyiur, mengapung menjadi pulau, masa kini, masa datang, tangan-tangan”. Kehadiran bahasa kiasan seperti “ribuan nyiur” tersebut digunakan untuk menciptakan efek yang kuat dari kemarahan Dursasana. Hal ini mendukung makna bahwa kemarahan Dursasana adalah kemarahan yang luar biasa dan besar. Rasa malu dan kekalahannya adalah hal yang luar biasa. Berikut kutipan yang menunjukkan hal tersebut. “Seketika martabat Dursasana, Katomama, dan saudara-saudaanya, jatuh sudah. “Rakyat pengkhianat!” teriak Dursasana sambil mencabut keris dan melemparkannya ke arah penonton yang terus bersorak-sorak memuja Drupadi. Gelombang pasang menghembaskan pantai dari ribuan nyiur yang buahnya mengapung menjadi pulau. Hutan Astina di masa kini, hutan Amata di masa datang, diolah oleh tangan-tangan yang tidak diketahui datang dari mana”. Dominasi gaya hiperbol dan personifikasi tampak dalam bagian terakhir dari cerpen ini. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa cerpen ini menciptakan kekuatan efek situasi untuk mendukung makna yang ada. Kata-kata seperti “pahlawan sejati”, “menunjuk”, dan “hampa” memberikan gambaran hal tersebut. Bagian terakhir ini adalah rangkaian penciptaan situasi. Situasi yang digambarkan adalah situasi yang hampa dan hambar. Ketiadaan hidup dan keheningan segala hiruk-pikuk telah berakhir. Akhir dari kekacauan tersebut sangat cepat dan singkat. Hal ini terlihat dari bangkit Drupadi meninggalkan alun-alun dan seluruh orang dan ksatria yang ada di situ menjadi patung. Untuk melukiskan suasana ini digunakan gaya bahasa litotes, hiperbol, dan personifikasi.Gaya bahasa hiperbol tampak dalam kata-kata ”terurai terus memanjang tak ada habisnya” dan “alun-alun menjadi seribu patung”. Gaya personifikasi ditunjukkan dengan kalimat “waktu telah menunjuk jarum jam”. Personifikasi ditunjukkan dengan klausa seperti “gumpalan hitam yang menganga itu bertindak”. Kehadiran gaya bahasa itu secara tidak langsung telah menciptakan efek dari situasi akhir. Berikut ini adalah kutipan situasi akhir dari cerpen ini. “Seperti seorang pahlawan sejati, tak hendak berpikir berulang-ulang untuk menepis segala gegap-gempita yang menyanjung itu, dari mana pun datangnya, Drupadi terus berjalan entah dengan kain yang melilit tubuhnya, terurai terus memanjang tak ada habisnya. Waktu telah menunjuk pada jarum supaya begulir, gumpalan awan hitam yang menganga itu bertindak dengan penuh rasa baktinya denagn menyedot seluruh darah daging yang terhampa tanpa pengawal di alun-alun itu. Para ksatria Kurawa yang ditinggalkan, juga ribuan rakyat jelata yang menjadi saksi, tiba-tiba berubah jadi batu. Alun-alun telah menjadi museum seribu batu”. Dari keseluruhan gaya bahasa yang muncul seperti, perumpaman, perbandingan, personifikasi, metafor, litotes, repetisi, polisemi, oksimoron, dan hiperbol, gaya bahasa tersebut mendukung penciptaan situasi, suasana, dan peristiwa yang terjadi. Selain itu, sarana retoris tersebut juga mampu menciptakan efek dan kesan yang mendukung dan membungkus penciptaan makna. Secara keseluruhan makna yang terhubungan dengan gaya bahasa adalah penciptaan antara dunia pemikiran, filsafat, epistemis, dan mistis. Dari gaya yang muncul, juga ditemukan situasi ataupun efek yang berusaha mengarahkan pembicaraan pada perenungan mistis, sufistik, dan ideologis terhadap hakikat manusia melalui sarana peristiwa dan pelakunya. Selain itu, penggunaan gaya bahasa tersebut juga mengalegorikan satu kejadian hingga memunculkan anggap bahwa korban itu (Drupadi) adalah pahlawan sejati. 4.

PenutupKehadiran gaya bahasa atau sarana retoris seperti perbandingan, perumpaman, metafor, litotes, oksimoron, hiperbol, personifikasi, repetisi, dan polisemi memperlihatkan hubungan yang erat terhadap efek, situasi, dan peristiwa. Melalui gaya bahasa, cerpen ini mengarahkan kepada pembaca untuk melakukan perenungan terhadap hakikat kehadiran pelakunya. Selain itu, lebih khususnya, gaya bahasa dalam cerpen ini memberikan arah dan langkah untuk memikirkan ulang hal-hal yang esensial, hakiki, epistemis, mistis, dan juga sufistik terhadap nilai dan makna dibalik realitas dan peristiwa. Hal ini dialegorikan dengan kehadiran dan peristiwa penyeretan Drupadi dan kekalahan ksatria Pandawa dalam permainan judi dengan ksatria Kurawa.

Daftar Pustaka

Barthes, Roland. 1987. “Theory of The Text” dalam Unitying The Text: A Post-Structuralist Reader dalam Robert Young. London dan New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Danarto. 2001. “Alun-Alun Seribu Patung” dalam Setangkai Melati Di Sayap Jibril. Yogyakarta: Bentang. Fowier, Roger. 1987. Modern Critical Terms. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Junus, Umar. 1989. Stilistika: Suatu Pengantar. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Kleden, Ignas. 2004. Sastra Indonesia dalam Enam Pertanyaan. Jakarta: Freedom Institute

Kridalaksana, Harimurti. 1982. Kamus Linguistik. Jakarta: Gramedia.Pradopo, Rahmat Djoko. 2003. Pengkajian Puisi. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press. Suwondo, Tirto. 2003. Studi Sastra: Beberapa Altenatif. Yogyakarta: Hanindita.

Turner, G.W. 1977. Stylistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Wellek, Rene dan Austin Warren. 1990. Teori Kesusastraan. Jakarta: Gramedia.

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The New Tradition of Putu Wijaya

Introduction

Putu Wijaya is one of Indonesia's most prominent and prolific authors, contributing numerous novels, short stories, dramas, and film scripts to Indonesian literature.l He is Balinese by birth and Jakartan by choice having spent the past twenty years there. The marriage of Balinese and Jakartan cultures is reflected in his literary style which is char­acterized by a departure from the conventions of realism, an eagerness to borrow from traditional and folk genres,2 and a black and biting humor. This style draws on elements commonly found in regional genres, such as wayang, arja, ludruk, ketoprak, lenong, and Srimulat,3 creating artistic forms that are reminiscent of Javanese and Balinese cultures, while remaining rooted in contemporary Jakarta. His language is colloquial, peppered with Jakartanese and Javanese expressions; his syntax is bare, direct, even shockingly abrupt. His themes, often arising out of urban settings, include feelings of alienation,

1Putu Wijaya was a Fulbright scholar at the University of Wisconsin, Madison during the 1985-1986 aca­demic year. I am grateful to him and to two anonymous readers for their comments on this essay.

2By "traditional genres" I mean the contemporary cultural expressions of ethnic groups such as Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, etc., not the performance traditions of past eras. Since performance traditions may be learned and performed by anyone of a particular region, the Indonesian term kesenian daerah or "regional arts" is a more appropriate term because it avoids the distinction between ethnic affiliation and regional group identity. The term "folk" characteristically is used to identify cultural performances associated with the lower class. There is a blurring of the distinction between traditional and folk genres in Indonesia as modern forms borrow from both folk and classical performance traditions. I use the terms "regional genres" or "regional art forms" to identify both traditional and folk genres.

3Wayang is the traditional puppet theater of Java and Bali based on adaptations of the Indian epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Ludruk, a contemporary folk drama, arose in the early twentieth century in Surabaya, and its all male cast uses Javanese language. Its popularity among the masses derives from its humor and treatment of modern social issues. Ketoprak, a dance-drama of Central Java, developed in the late nineteenth century and relates stories and legends of the colonial period. Srimulat which was established in the 1930s is a contemporary folk-drama that relies on improvisation and comedy routines. Arja is a traditional Balinese romantic dance-opera, presenting legends of the East Java kingdoms. Lenong is a folk-drama estab­lished in the early twentieth century which relates the history of the Betawi people of Jakarta.


tensions between traditional and modern obligations, and fears of rapidly changing cultural norms. Not surprisingly, his intended audiences are those experiencing a modernizing Indonesia, often educated, urban young adults.

For Putu, literature is a means of creating a dialogue between author and audience, not a means of delivering a specific message. His strategy for achieving his goal is to cre­ate a familiar setting that combines elements from regional genres within a modern context. Although Putu's audiences may not be familiar with traditional genres, they have probably been exposed to a lack of realism, stylized characters, and the humor of the absurd in comic book presentations of wayang stories, in dagelan (comedy) routines, in movies such as Raja Copet (King of the Pickpockets) where the influence of Srimulat is evident, and in other adaptations from traditional and folk genres in the mass media.

Putu's literary style alternately encourages and frustrates the adoption of a realistic interpretation. The discourse is organized in order to deceive and disturb the reader, to encourage the reader to question accepted norms. In 1984 Putu commented on the func­tion of literature as follows:

A composition ... becomes just a tool which is never more important than the individual readers it will reach. But as a perfect tool, it must be able to overcome the constraints of time and place so that it can be used by people of all times, of all classes, of all beliefs, of all groups-the noble as well as the amoral. And it must not contain just one possibility. It must be densely packed like a jungle, like Arjuna Sasrabahu with a thousand faces that can simultaneously attack in every direction [my translation].4

The above quote shows Putu to be a universalist-one who believes artists can tran­scend ethnic and national boundaries through their literary works. He hopes his works will speak to a variety of people, not just to Jakartan youth or to a particular class or ethnic group of Indonesia, but to peoples of various socio-cultural backgrounds in Indo­nesia and abroad. By basing his stories on common emotions, fears, and crises, Putu strives to speak to the ethnic and cultural diversity of a rapidly changing Indonesia as well as to other modern and modernizing societies. Putu's success in achieving this goal could only be ascertained through an investigation of audience composition and their interpretations.5

His plays aim to do more than entertain audiences with the exploits and tragedies of his characters-Oki, Pian, and Bima. In his drama Gerr,6 the audience is asked whether society is unfairly ostracizing individuals and demanding conformity. These questions demand thought-an investment of time and energy; and some audience members may not care to make such an investment. They may decide merely to enjoy the comedy of

4Putu Wijaya, "Konsep," in Dua Puluh Sastrawan Bicara, ed. Dewan Kesenian Jakarta (Jakarta: Sinar Harapan, 1984), pp. 82-83. "Sebuah karangan ... menjadi alat saja yang tak pernah lebih penting dari manu­sia pembaca yang akan dihubungi. Tetapi sebagai alat yang sempurna ia harus memenuhi persyaratan yang bisa menembus ruang dan waktu sehingga dapat dipakai oleh manusia segala zaman, manusia segala tingkatan, manusia dari segala paham, dari segala jenis manusia, yang luhur maupun yang bejat. Dan ia juga mestinya tidak hanya mengandung satu kemungkinan. Ia harus penuh sesak bagai rimba, bagai Arjuna Sasrabahu dengan seribu muka yang bisa menerjang ke segala arah dengan serentak."

5Such a study is needed in order to understand the relevance of Putu's work, but I do not attempt to address this question here.

6See Putu Wijaya, Gerr (Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 1986) and its English translation Geez! in Putu Wijaya in Per­formance: A Script and Study of Indonesian Theatre, ed. Ellen Rafferty, Center for Southeast Asian Studies,


Bima as he runs from his pursuers who chase him back to his coffin, or the tragedy of Oki who, afraid of inflicting pain on others, scales the flagpole where he later dies, a vic­tim of his own fears.7

Putu's intended audience includes those willing to pursue the story, to explore themes and ponder questions of social and/or philosophical import, seeing anew the customs of their societies. While the audience for Putu's writings is primarily an edu­cated elite able to make the transition from a distorted (unreal) setting and plot to their own concrete situations, the audiences of his plays may be broader; they may include a less intellectually oriented group. Prior to Putu's departure for the United States in 1985, his plays were generally performed at Taman Ismail Marzuki (TIM) where audiences consisted primarily of Jakartan youth interested in the arts. Since his return to Indonesia in 1988, he has performed both at the Graha Bhakti Budaya at TIM and at the Gedung Kesenian in Jakarta. As ticket prices rise both inside and outside TIM, the composition of theater audiences is shifting from the youthful groups of the past to an older, more established group. In light of this shift, perhaps Putu will begin to address this new audience.8

The New Tradition9

The desire to incorporate traditional modes of expression in contemporary Indone­sian arts is not unique to Putu. Interest in the use of elements from regional art forms arose, to a large extent, in the environment created by the establishment of Taman Ismail Marzuki10 in 1968. In the early years of TIM, experimentation was most promi­nent in the field of theater-a field inherently more accessible to a wide spectrum of society, and open to influences from oral performance traditions.ll Some of the pioneers in the creation of new theater traditions were W.S. Rendra,12 Arifin C. Noer, and Sardono; later, artists such as Putu Wijaya, Ikranagara, and Wisran Hadi joined them. A common thread linking these authors is a conscious and/or unconscious debt to their cultural backgrounds as evidenced by the use of elements from regional genres.

monograph no. 4 (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1989).

7See "If He Could Choose Again," in Bomb: Indonesian Short Stories by Putu Wijaya, ed. Ellen Rafferty and Laurie J. Sears (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), pp. 32-43.

8Putu hints at a willingness to adapt to a new audience in an interview by Burhan Piliang, "Strategi Putu," in Tempo, November 5, 1988, p. 71.

9Putu first used the term "New Tradition" in lectures at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, in 1985 to identify the contemporary Indonesian arts not modeled on Western genres. These Indonesian forms are a product of a historical process, expressing aesthetic principles of contemporary Indonesia.

10TIM is an arts center which was established in 1%8 by the Special District of Jakarta under the leadership of Governor Ali Sadikin. It became an important forum for traditional, modern, and international artists, stim­ulating creativity not only because of the modern and subsidized facilities but also because of the freedom from censorship.

11 For a negative view of the new directions in contemporary Indonesian theater see Mh. Rustandi Karta­kusuma, "Sastra Tanpa Kebanggaan Nasional," in Budaja Djaja 73 (June 1974): 327-34, which expresses the opinion that the new theater is merely an imitation of Western theater and does not speak to the Indonesian populace.

12For a discussion of Rendra's contribution to the development of new traditions see Dami N. Toda, "Teater Baru Indonesia," in Hamba Hamba Kebudayaan, ed. Dami N. Toda (Jakarta: Sinar Harapan, 1984), pp. 34-40; and Umar Kayam, "Penghayatan Seni dan Eksplorasi Seni," in Seni, Tradisi, Masyarakat, ed. Umar Kayam (Jakarta: Sinar Harapan, 1981), pp. 22-37.


Putu labeled contemporary artistic expressions that are inspired by, but not tied to, regional art forms as the New Tradition. This New Tradition, which began to flourish at TIM in the late 1960s and early 1970s, is no longer confined to theater. The flavor of re­gional culture combined with the expression of modernity in Indonesian arts is evi­denced in the short stories and novels of Yudhistira, Danarto, Korrie Layun Rampan, and Linus Suryadi among others. The popularity of public readings of literature and the influence of Javanese lexicon and grammatical structure on the Indonesian language13 both demonstrate the complementary nature of regional and modern influences on emergent Indonesian culture.

Umar Kayam's description of the tensions between regional and modern art styles which he sees in the works of Rendra is applicable to other experimental writers who adapt regional ways of speaking to broader audiences:

W.S. Rendra identifies himself as a rebel but at the same time a traditionalist. He sees himself as a rebel because he consciously desires to play the role of a creative artist who wants, from time to time, to shake up customs that have become frozen. . .. [He] wants to see the society refreshed by new thoughts and opinions which can stimulate the society to continue to be dynamic [my translation].14

The experimental writers of the New Tradition strive to entertain the public with new (perhaps national) forms, while maintaining continuity with local symbols and styles of performing.

The trend toward incorporation of elements from regional art forms in modern lit­erature and performance traditions sharply contrasts with earlier attitudes. In the past, these art forms were regarded as lacking in modernity and status.15 Prior to indepen­dence, there was a strong tendency among those writing in Malay/Indonesian to emu-late Dutch/Western aesthetic principles. In the early years of independence, artists strove to imitate Western genres-novel, short story, and drama. There was apprehen­sion that the assertion of ethnic identity in artistic expression would be divisive in a newly emerging nation. By the late 1970s, however, the expression of regional identity was no longer considered threatening. On the contrary, in the 1980s it is regarded as an enriching element, one valued in the development of distinctive Indonesian art forms.

Putu's Literary Style

A number of prominent features of Putu's style are explored below, as well as his place in the development of contemporary Indonesian literature. Examples from Putu's

13 J. Joseph Errington, "Continuity and Change in Indonesian Language Development," Journal of Asian Studies, 45, 2 (1986): 341-I5.

14Kayam, "Penghayatan Seni," p. 35. "W.S. Rendra menempatkan dirinya sebagai seorang 'urakan' tetapi sekaligus juga seorang 'tradisionalis'. Dia melihat dirinya sebagai urakan karena dia dengan sadar ingin memainkan peranannya sebagai seorang seniman kreatif yang ingin sewaktu-waktu menggoncangkan kela­ziman-kelaziman yang membeku ... ingin melihat masyarakat sewaktu-waktu disegarkan oleh pikiran­pikiran dan pendapat-pendapat baru yang bisa merangsang masyarakat untuk terus memelihara dinamikanya."

150ne example of renewed interest in a folk tradition is the popularity of lenong as a result of Sumantri Sastrosuwondo's work in adapting lenong to contemporary theater in the early 1970s. Lenong which was pre­viously considered a low-class art form became accepted and enjoyed by the middle and educated upper classes of Jakarta. S. M. Ardan and D. Djajakusma produced popular lenong dramas at TIM, and Putu pat­terned his drama, Blong, which was produced in 1977, on lenong.


novels, short stories, and dramas are cited in support of the contention that, despite a lack of realism in his work, Putu addresses questions of social import in Indonesia

Lack of Realism. Stylistically, Putu's writings since the early 1970s have departed from the generally accepted conventions of realism in Indonesian prose. He created dream-like sequences through the use of stream-of-consciousness techniques in his early novels, Telegram ,and Stasiun,16 The dream-like sequences present images from which the reader must create associations to events in his/her daily life. Narrative coherence is a function of themes, emotions, and images, not a function of temporal sequencing or the development of a plot and characters. This style focuses attention on thoughts and emotions, not on actions. Throughout the 1970s Putu's language became increasingly colloquial, fast-paced, and Jakartan. Often the organization of discourse was dream-like, frustrating easy interpretation. The dialogue was sprinkled with illogical and discon­nected statements, making it ambiguous and sometimes humorous. In the story "Dream," Pian, who has been careening the streets of Jakarta all night, suddenly ex-claims:

Why'd I end up like this? D'you want me to sell this dream to Russia, to America? So come on, gimme a break, gimme a second chance.17

This illogical sequence is reminiscent of the confusion in a dream, in contrast to the realistic fashion in which the story has been presented up to this point. The reader be-gins to wonder if Pian's story is real or only a dream. In this manner, Putu emphasizes the irrationality and confusion in daily life and the difficulty of distinguishing between the real and imagined worlds we inhabit.

Connections with Regional Arts. Beginning in the late 1970s, Putu began modifying the stream-of-consciousness style, stressing strategies from regional art forms. The strategies he used include indirection, humor, and fantasy.18 An other-worldly or fan­tasy setting is supported by a lack of character development and an absence of personal names. His use of roles and qualities-mother, policeman, someone, the sympathetic one-for names helps create flat, two-dimensional characters, not individuals.19

A marked shift away from Western literary models occurred in Putu's work in 1975 with the productions of Lho and Nol neither of which had a written script. Putu began to realize that theater could move away from dependence upon the word. It could appeal to an audience on visceral, emotional, and non-intellectual levels by decreasing its use of discursive language. I interpret this move as a move toward the tontonan model found in regional performances (see below).

Since the mid-1970s, Putu has also emphasized an appeal to visual and auditory senses, creating a dependence on images and their associative powers rather than on

16Telegram (Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya 1973); Stasiun (Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya, 1978).

17e "Dream," trans. M. Bodden, in Bomb: Indonesia Short Stories, ed. Rafferty and Sears, pp. 190-91.

18For a discussion of Putu's novel, Nyali (Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 1983), see Amrih Widodo 'The Roh' of the System: On the Unification of Meaning and Expression in a Contemporary Indonesian Novel," Indonesia 40 (October 1985): 75-88. Widodo explores Putu's use of indirection and avoidance of entrapment in the "language system" in order to make the reader uncomfortable and force him/her to actively search for mean­ing in the novel.

19See Kuntowijoyo, "Penokohan dan Perwatakan Dalam Sastra Indonesia," in Budaya Sastra, ed. Andy Zoeltom (Jakarta: Rajawali, 1984); and Toda, 'Teater Baru Indonesia," p. 42, both of whom discuss the lack of psychologically real characters in wayang stories and folk tales.


logic and rationality as a means of communicating. In his dramas, he accomplishes this by "painting" riotously colorful and busy scenes, punctuated by numerous and contra­dictory voices, creating a cacophony that stuns the senses. Borrowing from genres such as wayang, he began to use clowns as we interpreters to speak directly to audiences as well as to fellow actors. The clowns emphasized humorous routines, a feature of in-creasing importance in Putu's work. He borrowed illogical, humorous routines from contemporary folk comedians, such as the late Johny Gudel of Srimulat. In addition, the use of black humor, the grotesque, and the lewd-all found in numerous regional genres-are distinctive features of Putu's style in the 1980s. These features are aimed to appeal to a broad spectrum of society from diverse class, ethnic, and educational back-grounds.

By simultaneously presenting a number of "distorted" perceptions of the world, Putu creates a spectacle that blends modern Jakartan and traditional Balinese and Java­nese images. Members of the audience are left to create for themselves the associations to connect Putu's literature with the concrete events of their own world. It is through these associations rather than through direct argumentation that the audience is invited to find meaning in the plays.

Tontonan.20 A significant adaptation from regional genres has been the incorpora­tion of tontonan in Putu's theater. The meaning of the word tontonan covers a wide semantic domain; in its most general sense tontonan defines planned and unplanned events that attract attention. Street events such as the entertaining routine of a medicine man, a soccer game, and individual faux pas are all tontonan. Putu uses this term for his productions instead of the Indonesian word sandiwara, "drama," to emphasize an affin­ity with regional, oral genres which allow for audience participation and improvisation. In addition, Putu distinguishes his performance style from Western productions that are based on set scripts and a realistic acting style. A tontonan does not carry with it the pre-suppositions of drama as a written, "high" art form. Tontonan events are designed to adapt to local needs and resources and to facilitate interaction among participants. Ton­tonan is not a theory of performance but rather an attitude about the role of art in soci­ety; art is created by and for a local community.

Absence of Conclusions. Another element of regional genres which has been incor­porated into Putu's dramas is their cyclic nature which disallows conclusions or final resolutions (See Putu's dramas, Aum [1982], Aduh [1972], and Front [1985]). The drama Aum begins and ends with a crowd scene in which a high government official is being asked imponderable questions by a group of bewildered subjects. This structure is remi­niscent of the structure of the Balinese Calon Arong drama in which the conflict between the evil Rangda and the good Barong is never resolved; the characters wage an eternal struggle between good and evil. The return to the beginning in Putu's dramas is also reminiscent of the structure of wayang performances that begin and end at the king's palace. In these regional art forms, as in Putu's dramas, instead of a final victory there is a return to a state of balance between the abiding forces of good and evil.

The lack of a conclusion has been a feature of Putu's work since his early novels in the 1970s. In the novel Telegram, a young Balinese journalist living in Jakarta receives a telegram, notifying him of his mother's serious illness and imminent death. No major

20The noun tontonan is derived from the verb tonton meaning "to watch"; thus the noun refers to an event that attracts attention, a spectacle. For a discussion of tontonan see Ellen Rafferty, "The Tontonan Theatre of Putu Wijaya," in Putu Wijaya in Performance, ed. Rafferty.


action occurs throughout the novel; instead the author explores the thoughts and emo­tions of a man caught between traditional obligations to family in Bali and desires and obligations of life in contemporary Jakarta. Questions of life-style and cultural identity, and feelings of loss and alienation are set within a dream-like world where chronology is vague and the real and imagined blend into one. The novel Stasiun offers a glimpse of a man in search of identity, purpose, and direction in life. Again no action occurs; even when the prbtagonist finally boards a train, having spent hours at the station, the reader is not certain of his destination. Stasiun explores the inner world of perceptions, recording the confused emotions and feelings of a wandering soul, not the accomplish­ments of a man of action.

A Discourse that Disturbs. The artistic strategies found in Putu's work are set in a dis­course structure that surprises the reader with sudden shifts in time, mode,21 and per­spective. Typically, Putu's stories are presented in language that is simple and direct; they are filled with events that are common, such as a petty theft, the death of a village woman, or the jealousy of a boss for his employee's uncomplicated life-style. These fea­tures persuade the reader that the story is part of his/her experiential world and foster a realistic interpretation. Even unusual events are presented in a straightforward, matter-of-fact manner that encourages realistic interpretation.

When Oki woke up, there was a bomb next to him. It did not phase him at all, for he thought it was just part of his dream. He just reached out and hugged it like a pillow.22

Not far into each story, Putu begins to distort the presentation by including sudden shifts in perspective, time, and mode; the resulting non-sequiturs and contradictions violate the reader's trust. Initial realistic interpretations are abandoned as confusion increases. This manipulation of the discourse structure obscures the boundary between real and imagined worlds, making interpretation difficult. The reader is forced to question the reality portrayed and to consider the subjective nature of "reality" itself.

An example of an unexpected change in mode is found in "Pian" where the activi­ties of a petty thief are initially described in a realistic manner. Pian is depressed by his inability to achieve notoriety. In a final attempt to draw attention to himself, he decides to commit suicide by hanging himself atop a monument. In the last paragraph of the story, the reader discovers that the irrealis, not the realis, mode is being employed. The following two paragraphs demonstrate this unexpected shift.

Without hesitation, Pian tied a rope and carefully twisted it around his neck. Shouting "Freedom!" he jumped. His body dangled there, as the rain fell even harder. The streets were deserted, and nobody noticed the citizen of Jakarta who was killing himself.

The next day Pian ran to find a newspaper. But that story did not appear in the paper either. He waited several days but the story never appeared. Finally he began to believe.23

21Mode is a verbal category denoting the speaker's belief regarding the veracity of the activity of the verb. The mode may be realis, implying an actual event or irrealis, implying the conditional or counter-to-fact nature of the event.

22"If He Could Choose Again," trans. Michael Bodden, in Bomb: Indonesian Short Stories, ed. Rafferty and Sears, pp. 32-33.

23"Pian," trans. Lee Konrad, in ibid., pp. 70-71.


The last paragraph makes it clear that the preceding one was in the irrealis mode. The abruptness of the change in mode, without discourse motivation or linguistic marking, creates surprise and uneasiness. Is the whole story to be read in the irrealis mode? Where did the shift occur? The shift raises the question of the subjectivity of per­ceived reality. To what extent do dreams shape reality and vice versa?

In "If He Could Choose Again," the discourse is manipulated through a change in time-frame. The main character, Oki, who has found a bomb in his bed, climbs a flagpole in an effort to distance the dangerous object from his family and friends. Until the final sentence, the story is related in the past tense; then the narrative is placed squarely in the present, including the reader within the time-frame. Below are the final two sentences.

Tortured by what he had done, Oki slowly died. His body hangs like a slice of dried meat on top of the flagpole to this very day.24

This abrupt introduction of the present is bewildering. The motivation for the shift is not internal to the story; it is found in the pragmatic relation between the story and its audience. The shift forces the reader to reconcile his/her presence at the scene of this disaster. This raises questions, such as: In what sense is the audience a participant in this death and destruction? What responsibility does everyone bear?

Another type of change in discourse structure used by Putu to shock and disturb, is a shift in a character's perspective or attitude. In the drama Geez! such a shift occurs when the grieving wife of the recently deceased Bima, first expresses acceptance of the death saying:

Why are you all acting this way? Father wants to leave. Just let him. Come on, show a little happiness, smile, laugh so that the person leaving will have nice memories.

Yet, a few minutes later she cries out:

Honey, don't go dear! Don't leave me! Don't leave us! Come home! Come baaack!25

The same type of reversal is apparent when Grandmother asks Bima to die and leave the family alone because they no longer want or need him. Her words are absurd, even ludicrous, because she makes the request for him to die in a tender and loving manner. The affect and the referential meaning of the dialogue are inconsistent.

Bima: But I'm not dead, yet.

Grandmother: Everyone already knows you're dead. What will they say if you're

alive again? Where will they hide their faces? Everyone was pray‑

ing you would die so that we'd have a little peace and quiet. Bima: I don't want to die.

Grandmother: You have to! Your wife was very sad when you died. But she'll be even sadder if you're alive again because all her plans, all our plans, will be ruined.26

Such reversals in attitude reflect either a lack of psychological reality or a situation of extreme stress. The second option may be discounted because similar reversals within this drama are too numerous. The audience begins to feel frustrated by the characters' lack of psychological reality. Characters cease to have any integrity or coherence as indi‑

24"If He Could Choose Again," trans. Michael Bodden, in ibid., pp. 42-43. 25See Putu Wijaya in Performance, ed. Rafferty, pp. 70, 71.

26Ibid., p. 114.


viduals; no one in the story can be believed or trusted.

A final example of a shift in perspective is found in Putu's drama Aum (in English Roar).27 As the drama opens, a number of obscure questions are being asked of a district officer by a group of villagers who have come in search of answers. There is no linear plot line, merely sets of questions in a series of disconnected vignettes. The scenes are incongruous and .illogical, the regent is at one moment eager to help and at the next moment officious and arrogant. The villagers passionately engage in obscure village rituals and then begin to disco-dance. This incongruity causes one security guard to exclaim: "Wow sir, I hope this is only a dream."28 The inability to distinguish "dream" from "reality" is a constant theme in Putu's work, and one that emphasizes the hetero­geneity of perceptions in any community.

Experimentation of the 1970s

The departure from the accepted conventions of realism in Indonesian literature by Iwan Simatupang in the late 1960s and by Putu in the early 1970s complemented the experimentation occurring at TIM in the 1970s. Through imaginary worlds no longer constrained by physical limitations, these writers explored the "inner realities" of the mind. The illogical and irrational were treated as a natural part of the human condition. But, although experimentation with non-realistic styles flourished in the 1970s, most Indonesian authors continue to use the conventions of realism. Prominent among such authors are Nh. Dini, Mochtar Lubis, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Mangunwijaya.

Since the early 1980s, there has been a reaction against the "fantasy" of experimental writers by critics such as Arief Budiman, Ariel Heryanto, and Emha A. Nadjib,29 who call for the writing of literature which is "relevant" and speaks about the "real" world in an easily comprehensible manner. According to these critics, experimental literature is more interested in aesthetics than in social messages.30 Further, these critics are dissat­isfied with the prominence given experimental works (and the resulting exclusion of other works) by the government, press, and literary establishment.31 The literary establishment in Indonesia is seen as promoting a literature which avoids mention of actual social conditions, abrogating its role to improve society. Discussions of the role of literature in society are not new to Indonesia; vigorous debate occurred during Sukarno's Guided Democracy when the Institute of People's Culture (Lembaga Kebu­dayaan Rakyat, Lekra) promoted social realism.32 According to the critics of experimen­tal literature, what is needed in Indonesia is not an abstract and "isolated" literature, but

27"Aum" written in 1982, is an unpublished manuscript. Roar was translated by Michael Bodden in 1986 and was produced in Madison, Wisconsin, and DeKalb, Illinois by the experimental theater group, Broom Street Theater in 1986. It was produced by Putu Wijaya at Wesleyan University in the spring of 1987 and at La Mama in New York City in the spring of 1988.

28"Hansip: Aduh Pak semoga ini hanya mimpi." Putu Wijaya, ms., "Aum," p. 24.

29 Ariel Heryanto, ed., Perdebatan Sastra Kontekstual (Jakarta: Rajawali, 1985).

30 See Satyagraha Hoerip, "Mungkinkah-Sekarang-Kita Memiliki Kesusastraan Yang 'Lebih Terlibat'?" in Dua Puluh Sastrawan Bicara, pp. 102-10; Arifin C. Noer, "Sastra Kita Sastra Borjuis," in ibid., pp. 89-95; and Budiarto Danudjaya, "Dituntut: Seniman Sebagai Pemikir," in Budaya Sastra, ed. Zoeltom, pp. 117-26.

31See Keith Foulcher, "Sastra Kontekstual: Recent Developments in Indonesian Literary Politics," Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs, 21, 1 (1987): 6-28, and Emha Ainun Nadjib, "Sastra Independen," in Budaya Sastra, ed. Zoeltom, pp. 137-50.

32e Keith Foulcher, Social Commitment in Literature and the Arts: The Indonesian "Institute of People's


one that "dares" to speak out about social issues-a protest literature which is indepen­dent of the literary establishment.

In the debate about the role of literature in contemporary society, "isolated" litera­ture is contrasted with "contextual" literature which is defined by Arief Budiman as follows:

The ideal type of contextual literature right now, according to me, is literature that is conscious of the social environment, that addresses the issues of injustice and poverty. But the essential meaning of contextual literature is works of literature that can be appreciated by the local audience.33

The meaning of the term "isolated" has shifted from the non-judgmental connotation of "limited audience" to the pejorative connotation of "not socially relevant and elitist."34 Although I do not specifically address the issue of isolation in terms of the size of the audience, it is widely recognized that reading literature remains an activity of the educated elite. Clearly, literature does not reach the majority of citizens. Reflecting the view that "isolated" literature is not committed to social and economic change,35 literary critic David Hill commented in 1984 that:

New Order artistic champions, like Sutarji Calzoum Bachri, Danarto, and Putu Wijaya concentrated on fantastical and bizarre literary styles to obscure their lack of social commitment.36

Yet, other critics disagree, noting that both modern and traditional Indonesian literature contain social criticism even though that criticism may be veiled for political reasons.37

The reason for the above disagreement about the effect of experimental literature lies in structure of the literature. Experimental literature is seen as disengaged and as distant from the common people because its textual coherence is based on ideas presented by means of tropes. The interpretation of tropes (i.e. metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche or irony) demands analogic thinking to create associations between the images, symbols, and events of the story and events in the life experience of the reader. It is through these associations that the reader builds his/her interpretation of the text. The reader is thus asked to interpret, to make the analytic jump between the world of literature and con-temporary society.

Culture" 1950-1965 (Clayton, Victoria: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1986).

33Untung Surendro, "Wawancara dengan Arief Budiman, Sastra Kontekstual dan Manikebu," in Horison 20, 3 (1986): 78. Surendro quotes Budiman, "Sastra kontekstual yang ideal pada saat ini menurut saya adalah sastra yang sadar akan lingkungan, yang membicarakan ketidak adilan dan kemiskinan. Tapi pengertian sastra kontekstual itu sendiri secara murni adalah karya sastra yang mampu dinikmati oleh lingkungannya."

34The term "isolated" was first used to describe Indonesian literature by Goenawan Mohamad in 1969 in '"Tentang Keterpencilan Kesusastraan" reprinted in Goenawan Mohamad, Seks Sastra, Kita (Jakarta: Sinar Harapan, 1980): 39-49.

35The prominent exception is Rendra who, while experimental, makes direct attacks on government policies and actions and, therefore, is considered socially relevant. See for example his play translated and introduced by Max Lane, The Struggle of the Naga Tribe, Asian Pacific Writing 11 (St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1979).

36David Hill, Who's Left? Indonesian Literature in the 1980s, Center of Southeast Asian Studies, Working Paper No. 33 (Clayton, Vic: Monash University, 1984), p. 2.

37See Sapardi Djoko Damono, "Kritik Sosial dalam Sastra Indonesia: Lebah Tanpa Sengat," in Kesusastraan Indonesia (Jakarta: Gramedia, 1983), pp. 18-32; and Paul Tickell, "Subversion or Escapism: The Fantastic in Recent Indonesian Fiction," Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs 20, 1 (1987): 50-67.


Although the role of the reader in interpretation is important in all types of litera­ture, it is more critical in experimental literature where tropes are employed. While realistic literature demands interpretation because it is not simply a presentation of real­ity but an employment of literary conventions, it does not involve the analytic jump which tropes demand. Reader-response theory, which is increasingly popular in literary analysis, emphasizes the active role of the reader in the construction of meaning38. This theory replaces the objectivist tradition in which meaning is primarily grounded in the text and author; the authorial voice is the primary source of meaning. Critics of experimental literature in Indonesia appear to be promoting the objectivist tradition, espousing the belief that meaning is grounded in the author's intent39. This is but one theory of interpretation.

The objectivist theory is difficult to defend in the face of the cultural pluralism in contemporary society around the world, in particular in Indonesia. Increasingly there is no common ideological ground that provides interpretative authority to any one voice; rather, authority is more easily attributed to the multitude of readers who assign meaning. The reader may choose an interpretive framework from among the numer­ous theories being advanced today. New schools of interpretation such as feminist, Marxist, structuralist, and post-structuralist all provide possible frameworks; they all demand an ideological basis for interpretation. The ideological grounds for choosing one interpretation reflect the diverse socio-cultural contexts and historical backgrounds of readers.

Meaning in Putu's Works

The use of tropes in Putu's work allows for multiple interpretations of the thematic material depending on the reader's choice of interpretive framework. Putu's use of indi­rection does not mean he expresses no message and no concern for social and economic conditions. Both the meaning and relevance attributed to a text are indexical, that is partially dependent on what the reader brings to the text in terms of cultural and ideo­logical background and partially dependent on the content of the text itself.

The question of relevance which is often raised in relation to contemporary Indone­sian literature deserves some discussion. To be relevant "implies a close logical relation with, and importance to, the matter at hand."40 In Putu's works, the logical connection with, and importance to, society are indirect, resulting from the use of tropes. Relevance is not stated directly because Putu does not refer to specific events and people in the world.

For example, the story "If One Could Choose Again" offers an example of how Putu uses symbols to offer multiple interpretations. On an emotional level, the story is at once incredible, humorous, and sad. Although the anecdote presented is a flight of

38e Roland Barthes, "The Death of the Author" in Image-Music-Text, trans. Stephen Heath (New York: New Hill and Wang, 1977); Stanley Fish, "Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics," in Is There a Text in This Class? (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980); Wolfgang Iser, The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aes­thetic Response (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Jonathan Culler, The Pursuit of Signs: Semiotics, Literature, Deconstruction (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981); and Steven Mailloux, Interpre­tive Conventions: The Reader in the Study of American Fiction (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982).

39Ariel Heryanto is an exception believing the reader must assume the work of interpretation.

40See Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language (New York: The World Publishing Company, 1%6), p. 1228.


fancy-a distortion of everyday reality-the dilemmas, decisions, and contradictions presented in the story resonate with analogous occurrences in daily life. When Oki wakes up hugging a bomb, not his pillow, he is overcome by innumerable questions. As neighbors gather around the flagpole which Oki has climbed, communication breaks down; the crowd assumes the bomb is a child and begs Oki to drop the baby to the safety of their arms. In an attempt to save the "baby," a policeman shoots Oki and the bomb falls, exploding into the outstretched hands of family and friends.

For some readers, Oki may represent the citizen in a rapidly modernizing nation-a citizen confronted by the onslaught of technological advances that he does not compre­hend. On the other hand, Oki may represent the Indonesian nation, misunderstanding and being misunderstood by a technological world at home and abroad. If both Oki and his family and friends are victims, where does guilt lie? Is the bomb a product (a baby) of a technologically advanced world which can not live harmoniously within the Indone­sian context? The reader may consider-the power of technology, and its effects on social relations; the impossibility of avoiding contact with technology; and the impossibility of returning to the past or of "choosing again." The implications of these considerations for the reader create the story's relevance. If the reader can not make the analytic jump be­tween the world of literature and daily life, then the literature is not relevant for him/her.

The story "Eyes" is of a deceased woman whose eyes are "lost" before she is buried. Her husband, family, and friends frantically seek help from government officials and the local shaman but to no avail. After searching in vain for a thief, the family is told by the shaman that reality is not as they had originally perceived it to be.41 Putu repeatedly encourages audiences to see the diversity of possible perceptions of the world. Per­ception and evaluation of events are personal matters; there is no one authoritative voice. Everyone is responsible for his/her own determination of meaning and rele­vance.

The story "Envy" focuses on a short conversation between a boss and his subordi­nate, in which the boss reveals his envy of the young man's honest and simple life-style. At the same time, the boss admits to his own loneliness, dishonesty, and despair; life's pressures have forced him to wear several masks. Incredulous at this outpouring of emotion, but respectful of his boss's status, the worker politely listens. Later when the worker is alone, he prepares to leave, peeling off one mask only to select another from the eleven he carries in his back-pack. The loneliness and alienation presented here are common themes in Putu's work and ones which invite a number of interpretations.

Despite the lack of communication between these men, the subordinate shows a great deal of empathy for his boss.

I could understand how sad the old man was. Maybe he was too weak to take all this. ... As he walked up the stairs, I watched closely and prayed he would find strength. Don't let him die on the stairs, having lost hope.42

Neither man can escape his world/masks; each views the other's reality as more comfortable and more truly human. Although a message of compassion for boss and subordinate emerges from the story, questions remain. Do these men represent social

41 "Eyes," trans. Ellen Rafferty, in Bomb: Indonesian Short Stories, ed. Rafferty and Sears, pp. 178-79. 42"Envy;' trans. Michael Bolden, in ibid., pp. 142-43.


classes? Is the story critiquing language etiquette which disallows communication from lower to higher status individuals? Is the story critiquing behavior patterns of tradi­tional society? The manner in which these themes are made meaningful and relevant will depend on the reader.

The themes of the inevitable passage of time and the aging process are found in the short stories "Old" and "Bisma," where changing social mores are examined. "Old" deals with an old man's resistance to loss of power. Confronted by an ambitious and belliger­ent young man, the old man is eventually overtaken. Only after defeat, does he realize the adversary is himself at a younger age. Does the old man represent the aging process or conflicts of power relations in which the enemy lies within? Does the young man's lack of interest in the old man reflect the significance of our lack of interest in our own histories for an understanding of ourselves? The absence of the logic of real-time chronology frees the reader to create numerous analogies with real-life situations.

In "Bisma" a brave warrior from Javanese wayang stories appears in Jakarta's Senen mall. He creates a great commotion by presenting a revisionist history of himself to a crowd of shoppers. Characteristically, Putu produces an illogical series of events which serves to blur the distinction between real and imagined worlds. The old man, Bisma, denies his heroic qualities and explains how he has been misunderstood by modern society.43 Having presented his revisionist autobiography, Bisma strips off his wayang costume, dons jeans, t-shirt and sun glasses, announcing that he has changed his name from Bisma to Bhasmy,44 and disappears into the crowd. Although most feel no need for the old Bisma or for his values, others are impelled to call for his return. The ten­sions between the need for change and the need for continuity with traditional values are addressed through tropes. As in all of Putu's works, the ending offers no conclusion, but merely invites questions.

The reader is left to ponder: How does one reconcile contradictory social values in a society? When are old customs to be considered no longer valid? How is one to approach the interpretation of historical events that must be framed within the values of another period? Are those who call for Bisma's return only interested in his trappings or in his values and spirit? Can a traditional set of values harmoniously coexist with modern society and values? At another level of analysis, these same questions can be directed at Putu's writings: How can traditional modes of expression and modern con-texts complement one another in contemporary literature?

Concluding Remarks

Putu's literary style reflects strategic choices for speaking in the contemporary socio-political environment of Indonesia, an environment constrained by both audience composition and larger social and political forces. His decisions regarding style must be understood as a product of his own life experience of Bali in the 1950s, of political upheaval in Yogyakarta in the 1960s, of Jakarta in the 1970s and 1980s, and of his resi­dencies abroad in Japan in 1972, and in the United States in 1974-1975 and 1985-1988.

Putu's desire to leave much of the work of interpretation to the reader through the use of tropes is a means of creating a dialogic relationship with the audience, an asser‑

43"Bisma," trans. Ellen Rafferty, in ibid., pp. 216-17.

4`l'The name Bhasmy sounds like the Indonesian verb basmi, meaning to erase or eradicate.


tion of the importance of the reader's voice and authority, and a down-playing of his own authorial voice. This is a risky choice for an author, because it makes the reader's job more difficult and thus limits audience appeal. The reader must choose an interpre­tive framework and bring to the story his own experiences, associations, interpretations, and evaluation of relevance.

Although the voice of the reader assigns meaning, this does not negate Putu's voice as one among many. In the drama Geez! Putu speaks out against self-serving, egotistical interests and speaks for a humane and tolerant society, one accepting of diversity. Yet, the message is not tied to specific events in Indonesia; the reader is free to interpret the message to fit his/her own situation. The request for audience participation is an im­plicit expression of respect for the reader who must be independent (mandiri).45 In response to the question of the responsibility of the artist for effecting social change, Putu supports the reader-response theory of literary criticism, stating:

That question can not be asked of the work itself because it is "dead." The answer lies in the reader. The question which must be asked is, can a particular society or reader make use of a literary work.46

45"Mandiri" is the name of Putu's theater group in Jakarta.

46Wijaya, "Konsep," in Dua Puluh Sastrawan Bicara, pp. 84-85. "Pertanyaan itu tidak bisa ditanyakan kepada karya itu sendiri. Karena itu adalah barang 'mati.' Jawabannya ada pada manusia pembacanya. Pertanyaan yang mestinya diucapkan adalah apakah satu masyarakat tertentu, apakah pembaca, sudah dapat memanfaatkan karya sastra?"




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